In the realm of diplomatic history and international relations, the Eastern question referred to a complex geopolitical problem that spanned the late 18th to early 20th centuries, revolving around the political and economic instability of the Ottoman Empire. This predicament sparked competition and strategic maneuvering among the major European powers. Often labeled as the “sick man of Europe,” the Ottoman Empire’s diminishing military strength in the late 18th century posed a threat to the delicate balance of power established by the Concert of Europe.
The Eastern question encompassed various interconnected factors, including Ottoman military defeats, the empire’s financial instability, ongoing modernization efforts, the emergence of nationalist movements in its provinces, and the rivalries among the Great Powers.
Here, we provide a detailed timeline of the Eastern question in diplomatic history.
Table of Contents
Timeline of the Eastern Question
While there isn’t a specific starting date for the Eastern question. Indeed, as far back as the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699, when the Ottomans lost territory for the first time in Europe, the days of Ottoman expansion were over. Arguably the best place to start is with the Russo-Turkish War of 1768-1774.
Russo-Turkish War of 1768-1774
The Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774 was a significant military conflict where Russian forces achieved considerable success against the Ottoman Empire. Russia’s triumph resulted in the acquisition of the region between the Bug and Dnieper rivers, known as Yedisan, and the annexation of Crimea into their sphere of influence. Despite these victories and the Russian Empire’s territorial gains, which included a substantial portion of the Pontic–Caspian steppe, the actual annexation of Ottoman territory was somewhat limited. This limitation can be attributed to a complex diplomatic struggle within the European political system. The European powers were keen on maintaining a balance of power that satisfied their interests and prevented direct Russian dominance over Eastern Europe. At the same time, this war played a major part in developing the Eastern question into a concept in diplomatic circles, due in large part to the fact that the Ottomans lost European territories for the first time in a while.
Napoleon’s Campaign in Egypt and Syria: July 1, 1798-September 2, 1801
The French campaign in Egypt and Syria was a military operation led by Napoleon Bonaparte in the Ottoman territories of Egypt and Syria. Napoleon justified the campaign by citing the defense of French trade interests and the establishment of scientific endeavors in the region as its primary objectives. This campaign was a key component of the broader Mediterranean campaign in 1798, marked by a series of naval battles that included the capture of Malta and the Greek island of Crete, culminating in the arrival of French forces at the Port of Alexandria. Napoleon trounced the Egyptian/Ottoman forces in the region, which made an indelible mark on Ottoman self-esteem. In the end, the campaign ultimately ended in failure after the British Navy successfully cut off any means of transport by destroying the French fleet. Napoleon absconded, leaving his troops in Egypt, and returned to France due to the growing threat of a Second Coalition. Napoleon’s campaign in Egypt and Syria marked the first time any Arab province of the Ottoman Empire had been really engaged by Western Europeans.
Russo-Turkish War of 1806-1812
Another of several Russo-Turkish wars, this one resulted in another Russian victory. As a result, the Ottomans had to cede the eastern half of Moldavia to Russia, which became known as Bessarabia. This conflict marked another loss of Ottoman territory in Europe. Additionally, this particular Russo-Turkish conflict further refined and defined the concept of the Eastern question.
Greek War of Independence: February 21, 1821-September 12, 1829
While the Great Powers of Europe — who formed the so-called Concert of Europe in the aftermath of Napoleon’s downfall in 1815 — usually aimed to suppress or contain revolutionary disturbances, the struggle of Greek independence from the Ottomans was a cause many European governments could get on board with. A strong intellectual and cultural philhellenism prevailed among many Europe’s educated classes, both in and out of government. In September 1821, Greek forces led by Theodoros Kolokotronis captured Tripolitsa, sparking revolts in Crete, Macedonia, and Central Greece. These uprisings were eventually suppressed. However, makeshift Greek naval fleets achieved victories against the Ottoman navy in the Aegean Sea, preventing Ottoman reinforcements from reaching Greece by sea.
Internal tensions among Greek factions led to two successive civil wars. To quell the revolt, the Ottoman Sultan enlisted Muhammad Ali of Egypt, who sent his son, Ibrahim Pasha, with an army to Greece in exchange for territorial gains. By the end of 1825, Ibrahim had established Egyptian control over most of the Peloponnese. Missolonghi fell to the Turks in April 1826 after a year-long siege, and Athens was captured, diminishing revolutionary spirits.
In response, the Great powers – Russia, Britain, and France – intervened in 1827, sending their naval fleets to Greece. When news of an impending Ottoman-Egyptian attack on Hydra reached them, the European fleets confronted the Ottoman navy at Navarino. The Battle of Navarino, after a tense standoff, resulted in the destruction of the Ottoman-Egyptian fleet and a turning point in favor of the Greek revolutionaries.
In 1828, under pressure from a French expeditionary force, the Egyptian army withdrew. Ottoman garrisons in the Peloponnese surrendered, and Greek revolutionaries began retaking central Greece. The Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia, allowing Russian forces to move into the Balkans near Constantinople. This compelled the Ottomans to accept Greek autonomy in the Treaty of Adrianople and autonomy for Serbia and the Romanian principalities.
After nine years of conflict, Greece was finally recognized as an independent state under the London Protocol of February 1830. Further negotiations in 1832, during the London Conference and the Treaty of Constantinople, defined the new state’s final borders and established Prince Otto of Bavaria as Greece’s first king.
Egyptian-Ottoman War of 1831-1833
The First Egyptian-Ottoman War, also known as the First Syrian War, took place from 1831 to 1833 and was a military confrontation between the Ottoman Empire and Egypt. The conflict arose when Muhammad Ali Pasha, the Ottoman-appointed viceroy of Egypt, requested control of Greater Syria from the Ottoman Empire as a reward for his support during the Greek War of Independence. Consequently, Egyptian forces temporarily took control of Syria, extending their influence as far north as Kütahya. In the end, the Convention of Kütahya allowed Egypt to become an autonomous vassal of the Ottoman Empire. The fact that an Ottoman province, led by its imperially appointed governor, waged war against the sultan and the empire marked a significant escalation in the issues related to the Eastern question.
London Straits Convention: July 13, 1841
The London Straits Convention of July 13, 1841, involved major European powers — Russia, the United Kingdom, France, Austria, and Prussia. It reinstated the Ottoman Empire’s control over the Turkish Straits, namely the Bosporus and Dardanelles, by prohibiting the passage of any warships except those belonging to the Sultan’s allies during wartime. This arrangement favored British naval dominance over Russia, as it restricted Russian access to the Mediterranean. This convention was part of a series of agreements related to the Bosporus, Sea of Marmara, and Dardanelles. It emerged as a response to a secret provision in the Treaty of Hünkâr İskelesi (Unkiar Skelessi) from 1833, which granted exclusive use of the straits to Ottoman and Imperial Russian warships during a general war, excluding all foreign warships. The convention also arose as a result of the Second Egyptian-Ottoman War (1839-1841), when the Ottomans failed to retake Syria by military force and had to recognize Muhammad Ali and his descendants as legitimate rulers of Egypt.
Crimean War: October 16, 1853-March 30, 1856
The Crimean War was a conflict between Russia and a victorious alliance comprising the Ottoman Empire, France, the United Kingdom, and Sardinia-Piedmont. The war had its roots in geopolitical factors, including the decline of the Ottoman Empire, Russian expansion in prior Russo-Turkish Wars, and the desire of Britain and France to maintain the balance of power in Europe by preserving the Ottoman Empire. The immediate trigger was a dispute over the rights of Christian minorities in Palestine, with France supporting Roman Catholics and Russia supporting the Eastern Orthodox Church. Despite attempted mediation, the war began with the Ottoman declaration against Russia. It involved significant naval blockades, battles in the Black Sea, and a siege of Sevastopol. The war ended with the Treaty of Paris in 1856, which forbade Russia from basing warships in the Black Sea and led to various reforms in the Russian Empire. The Crimean War showed that western European powers like Britain, whose vital maritime tradelines in the Eastern Mediterranean she had to proactively protect, as well as France, among others, were not willing to see the Eastern question resolved by Russian domination of the Black Sea Straits and the core of the Ottoman Empire.
Herzegovina Uprising: 1875–1877
The Herzegovina uprising was a rebellion primarily led by Christian Serbs against the Ottoman Empire, mainly in Herzegovina but spreading to Bosnia and Raška in the summer of 1875, lasting until early 1878. Triggered by the harsh treatment of Christian subjects by Ottoman authorities in Bosnia, the uprising coincided with the Great Eastern Crisis (1875–1878) and was influenced by resistance to Ottoman reforms. The rebels received support from Montenegro and Serbia, leading to the Serbian-Ottoman and Montenegrin-Ottoman Wars in 1876–78, followed by the Russo-Turkish War (1877–78). These events culminated in the Berlin Congress of 1878, granting independence and territorial expansion to Montenegro and Serbia, while Austria-Hungary occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina for three decades, though it remained officially Ottoman territory.
April Uprising of 1876
The April Uprising was a Bulgarian revolt against the Ottoman Empire that occurred from April to May 1876. Ottoman irregular units, known as bashi-bazouks, brutally suppressed the rebellion, resulting in widespread violence and massacres, including the infamous Batak massacre. American individuals, such as those connected to Robert College in Istanbul and the Protestant mission in Plovdiv, played a crucial role in exposing Ottoman atrocities to the broader European public. Their reports, labeled as the Bulgarian Horrors and the Crime of the Century, triggered outrage across Europe and galvanized public opinion, leading to calls for reform of the Ottoman governance in Bulgarian lands. This shift in sentiment, notably within the British Empire, ultimately contributed to the establishment of an independent Bulgarian state in 1878.
Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878
This Russo-Turkish War involved a conflict between the Ottoman Empire and a coalition led by the Russian Empire, including Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro. It was fought in the Balkans and the Caucasus and was driven by 19th-century Balkan nationalism, as well as Russia’s desire to regain territory lost during the Crimean War, secure control over the Black Sea, and support Balkan nations seeking independence from the Ottoman Empire. The Russian-led coalition emerged victorious, pushing the Ottomans to the outskirts of Constantinople, which prompted Western European powers to intervene. This resulted in Russia gaining territories in the Caucasus, including Kars and Batum, annexing the Budjak region, and leading to the formal independence declarations of Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro from the Ottoman Empire. Additionally, after nearly five centuries of Ottoman rule (1396–1878), the Principality of Bulgaria emerged as an autonomous state with Russian support and military involvement. This war as well as the resulting emergence of several Balkan states seriously complicated the already complex Eastern question.
Congress of Berlin: June 13-July 13, 1878
The Congress of Berlin, held from June 13 to July 13, 1878, was a diplomatic conference that aimed to reorganize the Balkan Peninsula following Russia’s victory over the Ottoman Empire in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78. Led by German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, the Congress involved the six major European powers of the time, including Great Britain, France, Austria-Hungary, Italy, and Germany, as well as the Ottomans and four Balkan states: Greece, Serbia, Romania, and Montenegro. The Treaty of Berlin replaced the preliminary Treaty of San Stefano and sought to stabilize the Balkans, diminish Ottoman influence, and balance the interests of various powers, particularly Britain, Russia, and Austria-Hungary. Indeed, the Treaty of San Stefano was so heavily in favor of Russia that the Eastern question itself was nearly resolved by Romanov armed forces. Instead, the Congress of Berlin resulted in the Ottomans losing European territories, granting varying degrees of independence to the affected regions, and was initially seen as a peace success. However, dissatisfaction among the participants and unresolved nationalist tensions in the Balkans ultimately contributed to future conflicts, including the First World War in 1914.
Kresna–Razlog Uprising: November 8, 1878-May 25, 1879
The Kresna-Razlog Uprising, also known as the Macedonian Uprising, was an anti-Ottoman Bulgarian rebellion in Ottoman Macedonia, primarily in what is now Blagoevgrad Province, Bulgaria, during late 1878 and early 1879. It erupted in response to the Congress of Berlin’s decisions, which handed back Bulgarian-populated parts of Macedonia to Ottoman rule instead of incorporating them into the newly established Bulgarian state, as outlined in the Treaty of San Stefano. Organized by the Unity Committee and supported by Bulgarian detachments, the uprising initially had success but ultimately faltered due to leadership disagreements and was suppressed by the Ottoman army.
Bulgarian Unification: September 1885
The Unification of Bulgaria, which occurred in the autumn of 1885, marked the joining of the Principality of Bulgaria and the Eastern Rumelia province. This coordinated effort was orchestrated by the Bulgarian Secret Central Revolutionary Committee (BSCRC). While both regions had been part of the Ottoman Empire, the principality had operated as a de facto independent entity, whereas Eastern Rumelia had a level of autonomy under Ottoman authority. The unification was achieved following uprisings in Eastern Rumelian towns and a coup on September 18, 1885, supported by Bulgarian Prince Alexander I. The BSCRC, led by Zahari Stoyanov, played a key role in promoting the idea of unification through press and public demonstrations in the spring of 1885.
Bulgarian Declaration of Independence: October 5, 1908
While Bulgaria had been de facto independent, the de jure independence of Bulgaria from the Ottoman Empire was proclaimed on October 5, 1908 in the old capital of Tarnovo by Prince Ferdinand of Bulgaria, who afterwards took the title “Tsar”. The declaration of Bulgarian independence had several important implications for the Eastern Question. It further weakened the Ottoman Empire, which had been steadily losing its grip on the Balkans. It created a new independent state in the Balkans, adding complexity to the region’s political landscape. It prompted other Balkan states, such as Serbia and Montenegro, to also seek full independence, leading to the Balkan Wars of 1912-1913. The European powers, particularly Austria-Hungary and Russia, had to adjust their diplomatic strategies in response to Bulgaria’s declaration.
Italo-Turkish War: September 29, 1911-October 18, 1912
The Italo-Turkish War occurred between September 29, 1911, and October 18, 1912, involving Italy and the Ottoman Empire. It marked the unified Kingdom of Italy’s entry into the tangled issue of the Eastern question. Italy gained control of the Ottoman Tripolitania Vilayet, including Fezzan, Cyrenaica, and Tripoli, which became Italian colonies later known as Italian Libya. Italy also briefly occupied the Dodecanese islands in the Aegean Sea but retained them due to vague terms in the Treaty of Ouchy. This conflict, seen as a precursor to World War I, saw technological advancements, such as the first use of airplanes in combat and wireless telegraphy experiments conducted by Guglielmo Marconi in Libya. Additionally, the war’s outcome influenced the start of the First Balkan War in October 1912 as Balkan states observed Italy’s success against the Ottomans and acted on their own nationalistic motivations.
Balkan Wars: October 8, 1912-August 10, 1913
The Balkan Wars, occurring in 1912 and 1913, consisted of two conflicts involving Balkan states. In the First Balkan War, Greece, Serbia, Montenegro, and Bulgaria united to declare war on the Ottoman Empire, defeating it and taking away most of its European territories, except Eastern Thrace. In the Second Balkan War, Bulgaria, dissatisfied with its losses in the first war, fought against its former allies and faced additional attacks from Romania and the Ottoman Empire. The wars redrew the map of the Balkans, with Bulgaria regaining some territory in the Treaty of Bucharest but losing part of Dobruja to Romania. These conflicts also fueled ethnic cleansing and atrocities against civilians, foreshadowing later events like the Yugoslav Wars in the 1990s. The Balkan Wars played a role in the lead-up to World War I, setting the stage for the July Crisis of 1914.
First World War: October 29, 1914-October 30, 1918
During World War I, the Ottoman Empire aligned itself with the Central Powers. Its entry into the war began with a surprise attack on the Black Sea coast of Russia on October 29, 1914, which prompted Russia to declare war on the Ottoman Empire on November 2, 1914. Ottoman forces engaged in battles against the Entente in both the Balkans and the Middle Eastern theaters of the war. The Ottoman Empire’s ultimate defeat in 1918 played a pivotal role in its eventual disintegration and dissolution in 1922, in the end solving the Eastern question once and for all.
Treaty of Sèvres: August 10, 1920
The Treaty of Sèvres, signed in 1920 between the Allies of World War I and the Ottoman Empire. The treaty was an attempt to solve the Eastern question by significant partitioning of Ottoman territory among France, the United Kingdom, Greece, and Italy, while also establishing occupation zones within the Ottoman Empire. This treaty marked the beginning of the Ottoman Empire’s disintegration, with its stipulations involving the relinquishment of most non-Turkish inhabited regions to Allied administration. It led to the creation of new political entities, such as the British Mandate for Palestine and the French Mandate for Syria and Lebanon. However, the treaty faced opposition and sparked Turkish nationalism, leading to the Turkish War of Independence under Mustafa Kemal Pasha’s leadership. Eventually, the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne replaced the Treaty of Sèvres, ending the conflict and establishing the Republic of Turkey.
Greco-Turkish War: May 15, 1919-October 11, 1922
The Greco-Turkish War of 1919–1922 took place during the reorganization of the Ottoman Empire after World War I, from May 15, 1919, to October 11, 1922. Greece initiated the campaign with the promise of territorial gains from the Ottoman Empire made by Western Allies, particularly British Prime Minister David Lloyd George. The conflict stemmed from Greece’s historical ties to Anatolia, which had been part of Ancient Greece and the Byzantine Empire before Turkish conquest in the Middle Ages. Greek forces initially made advances in Anatolia, but their progress was halted at the Battle of the Sakarya in 1921. The war shifted in favor of the Turkish National Movement, leading to the recapture of Smyrna and the great fire of Smyrna in 1922. As a result, Greece returned to its pre-war borders, and the Treaty of Lausanne recognized the Republic of Turkey’s independence and sovereignty over Anatolia, Istanbul, and Eastern Thrace, with both nations agreeing to a population exchange. It now seemed that Turkey would decide for itself the answer to the Eastern question.
Turkish War of Independence: May 19, 1919-July 24, 1923
The Turkish War of Independence was a series of military campaigns and a revolution led by the Turkish National Movement following the occupation and partition of parts of the Ottoman Empire after its defeat in World War I. This conflict resulted in the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, the end of the Turkish monarchy and the Islamic Caliphate, and the establishment of the Republic of Turkey in Anatolia and Eastern Thrace. It was a struggle between Turkish Nationalists and Allied forces over the application of principles like national self-determination in post-war Anatolia. Mustafa Kemal Pasha (Atatürk) emerged as a leader of the resistance against the Ottoman government and the Allies. The war ultimately led to the recognition of the Grand National Assembly in Ankara as the legitimate Turkish government, the signing of the Treaty of Lausanne in July 1923, and the establishment of the Republic of Turkey. This period also saw significant demographic changes and ethnic cleansing in Anatolia.
Treaty of Lausanne: July 24, 1923
The Treaty of Lausanne, signed in Switzerland on July 24, 1923, during the Lausanne Conference of 1922–23, resolved the longstanding conflict between the Ottoman Empire and the Allied powers, including France, the British Empire, Italy, Japan, Greece, Serbia, and Romania, dating back to World War I. It replaced the earlier Treaty of Sèvres, which had been rejected by the Turkish National Movement, leading to the Greco-Turkish War and the Armistice of Mudanya in 1922. The treaty’s ratification by Turkey on August 23, 1923, and by other signatories by July 16, 1924, marked its official enforcement on August 6, 1924. The treaty included an amnesty declaration for crimes committed between 1914 and 1922, encompassing events like the Armenian genocide, which has been a subject of historical debate and controversy. With the signing of the Treaty of Lausanne, the Eastern question was effectively over.
Declaration of the Republic of Turkey: October 29, 1923
On October 29, 1923, the Declaration of the Republic of Turkey marked a historic moment in the nation’s history as it signaled the official establishment of the Republic of Turkey, effectively ending the centuries-old Ottoman Empire. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the visionary leader of the Turkish War of Independence and the founder of the modern Turkish state, proclaimed the republic from the capital city of Ankara. This declaration marked a break from the Ottoman imperial tradition and the adoption of a secular, democratic, and Western-oriented nation-state. Atatürk went on to become the country’s first president, spearheading a series of sweeping reforms aimed at modernizing Turkish society, including the adoption of a new legal code, the introduction of the Latin alphabet, and the promotion of gender equality. The declaration of the republic not only reshaped Turkey’s political and social landscape but also set the nation on a path of profound transformation and modernization.
The Bottom Line on the Timeline of the Eastern Question
In the end, the ultimate answer to the Eastern question was that the collapse of the Ottoman Empire would result not in wholesale partitioning by ravenous European imperial powers, but in a Turkish successor state at the old empire’s Anatolian and Balkan core, plus a smattering of newly created League of Nations mandates (controlled by the victorious powers Britain and France) carved out of Ottoman territory in the Arab Middle East.