In the area of diplomatic history and international relations, the Concert of Europe referred to an agreement among major 19th-century European powers to maintain a balance of power, political borders, and areas of influence, aiming to bring stability after the turmoil of the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars. It had periods of unity and disagreement, with some debates about its exact duration.
Here, we’ll provide a detailed timeline of the Concert of Europe in diplomatic history and history in general.
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Timeline of the Concert of Europe
The Concert of Europe began with the Congress of Vienna in 1814-1815, involving Austria, France, Prussia, Russia, and the United Kingdom. While it initially aimed for regular congresses to resolve conflicts, it often held ad hoc meetings successfully. The Holy Alliance members used it to oppose liberalism. The Concert faced challenges during the 1848 Revolutions and ultimately ended as nationalism led to territorial changes in Italy and Germany in 1871. It briefly revived under Bismarck, overseeing peace until World War I in 1914 when it couldn’t prevent conflict due to various factors.
For our purposes here, the timeline of the Concert of Europe runs from the Congress of Vienna in 1814-1815 to the outbreak of the Revolutions of 1848.
Congress of Vienna: September 1814-June 1815
Overseen by the Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich, the Congress of Vienna was a series of international diplomatic meetings with the purpose of ironing out the political and constitutional order in Europe after nearly 25 years of French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars. There were representatives from various countries, but the key players were the five recognized Great Powers of Europe: Britain, Russia, Austria, Prussia, and the defeated France. The Congress aimed to establish a lasting peace plan for Europe after revolution and war through negotiations. It sought not only to restore old borders but also to resize major powers for a balanced and peaceful coexistence while restraining republican and liberal movements. France had a weak position compared to Britain, Prussia, Austria, and Russia due to its recent military defeats, resulting in significant territorial losses for France. The negotiations were conducted despite Napoleon’s return to power in 1815, leading to the Congress’s agreement 9 days before his final defeat at Waterloo. While some criticize it for suppressing democratic and liberal movements, others applaud it for maintaining peace in Europe for nearly a century.
Holy Alliance: September 26, 1815
On September 26, 1815, the Holy Alliance emerged as a significant alliance comprising the Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian and Russian Empires. Their primary objective was to safeguard Christian social values and uphold traditional monarchism in post-Napoleonic Europe. This alliance, forged in the wake of the Congress of Vienna, was a notable diplomatic development of the time. However, it’s important to note that not all prominent leaders were keen to sign this agreement. Pope Pius VII abstained from joining the Holy Alliance, mainly due to concerns that it did not align closely enough with Catholic doctrine. Similarly, Sultan Mahmud II of the Ottoman Empire opted not to sign, largely because the alliance appeared to be predominantly Christian in nature. Another notable absentee was the British Prince Regent, as his government operated under a constitutional monarchy with more liberal political principles. Consequently, Britain refrained from committing itself to the role of policing continental Europe, distinct from the continent’s conservative approach. The Holy Alliance’s formation reflected the complex geopolitical landscape of post-Napoleonic Europe, where a patchwork of ideologies and political systems coexisted. This alliance, while aiming to maintain traditional values and political structures, underscored the tension between conservatism and liberalism in the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars. It served as a reminder that Europe was grappling with competing visions for its future, with some nations seeking to uphold established norms and others embracing more progressive ideologies.
Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle: September 29-November 21, 1818
The Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle was a diplomatic meeting involving France and the victorious allied powers of Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia, which had defeated France in 1814. Its primary goals were to discuss the withdrawal of the occupation forces from France and renegotiate the reparations owed by France. The congress resulted in a friendly agreement where France restructured its reparations debt, and the allied forces withdrew from France within weeks. The occupation formally ended on September 30, 1818, with full evacuation completed by November 30. The Congress also restored France’s position as a European power, and financially, France initially owed 700 million francs but offered to pay 265 million, partially in the form of French bonds. The main achievement of the Congress was the definitive end of the wars from 1792 to 1815, the closure of all claims against France, and the recognition of France as an equal and full member of the Concert of Five Powers, although disagreements among the powers began to emerge in subsequent years over various international issues. Crucially, as a result of this congress, France was allowed to enter into the new Quintuple Alliance, alongside Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Britain; France, with the Bourbon dynasty restored, now stood for maintaining the status quo.
Congress of Troppau: October 20-November 19, 1820
Meeting in Troppau (modern-day Opava in the Czech Republic), this congress saw a conference of the Quintuple Alliance — Austria, Britain, France, Prussia, and Russia — called on to convoke by Tsar Alexander I of Russia. It aimed to address the July 1820 revolution in Naples. During this conference of the Quintuple Alliance, the Troppau Protocol was signed on November 19, 1820. Austria, Russia, and Prussia were the main participants, with Metternich, Capo d’Istria, and Hardenberg representing their respective countries. Britain, a generally liberal country, uncomfortable with the idea of collective action against the Neapolitan revolution, sent Lord Stewart as its representative, while France had no clear policy and limited representation. The Congress took on an informal tone, marked by Metternich’s realization that Tsar Alexander was no longer supportive of his earlier “Jacobin” policies. This shift in alliances allowed Austria, Russia, and Prussia to move forward without considering the opinions of Britain and France, culminating in the signing of the preliminary protocol on November 8, excluding the representatives of Britain and France from key decision-making conferences. The text of the Protocol of Troppau is as follows:
States, which have undergone a change of government due to revolution, the result of which threaten other states, ipso facto cease to be members of the European Alliance and remain excluded from it until their situation gives guarantees for legal order and stability. If, owing to such alterations, immediate danger threatens other states the powers bind themselves, by peaceful means, or if need be, by arms, to bring back the guilty state into the bosom of the Great Alliance.
Congress of Laibach: January 26-May 12, 1821
A follow-up meeting agreed upon at Troppau, the Congress of Laibach (modern Ljubljana, capital of Slovenia) aimed to settle international issues, namely the ongoing upheaval in Naples. The congress granted Austria permission to intervene in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies to suppress a liberal Neapolitan uprising. Emperors Alexander I of Russia and Francis I of Austria attended in person, while Prussia and France sent plenipotentiaries. Britain, disinterested in the Italian matter, sent Lord Stewart as an observer without full powers. Tensions between Britain and the other powers grew as Metternich sought unanimous support for Austrian intervention. When this failed, Lord Stewart protested openly, objecting to the broad principles used to justify the intervention. Ultimately, the congress authorized Austria’s intervention in Naples, leading to a Neapolitan declaration of war and Austria’s occupation of Naples. The conference’s European significance lay in the principles proclaimed by Russia, Austria, and Prussia, reaffirming the Troppau Protocol, but Britain and France did not sign, indicating a divide within the alliance.
Congress of Verona: October 20-December 14, 1822
The Congress of Verona addressed several key issues within the Quintuple Alliance. First, regarding the Italian Question, Britain — not fully supportive of Austrian rule in Northern Italy — delayed formal participation until other powers had resolved it. Second, the Greek Question — aka the Greek War of Independence, a topic of British interest — focused on recognizing Greek belligerent rights while avoiding committing Britain beyond a supporting role. This issue had been informally settled between Russia and Austria in preliminary meetings at Vienna. The main topic was the Spanish Question, involving French intervention in Spain, to which Britain expressed strong opposition. In 1820, a liberal Spanish lieutenant-colonel Rafael de Riego had staged a military uprising (really, one of the first and prime examples of a pronunciamento) against the absolutist regime of Ferdinand VII. Riego and the liberals wanted the reestablishment of the 1812 Constitution — which Ferdinand VII conceded — and from 1820 to 1823, the period was known as the Trienio Liberal. However, the Concert of Europe, and the Quintuple Alliance specifically, eyed Spanish developments with concern. French military intervention in Spain was approved and occurred following the congress — the so-called “Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis.” The invasion was fast, resulting in the reinstatement of Ferdinand VII and marked the beginning of a reactionary period in European politics, ultimately leading to the Year of Revolutions in 1848. While the powers had initially acted in concert during the Congress of Vienna, their unity unraveled in the seven years leading to the Congress of Verona. The main historical significance of this congress was Britain’s open break with the principles and policies of the Quintuple Alliance.
Protocol of St. Petersburg: March 2-April 4, 1826
The Protocol of St. Petersburg is often seen by some historians as marking the end of the Congress System of the Concert of Europe. It resulted from the Congress of St. Petersburg in 1825, which failed to address issues related to the Greek War of Independence against the Ottoman Empire. Russia supported Greek independence due to territorial and influence interests in the Black Sea and Balkans, as well as a desire to protect Eastern Orthodox Christians under Ottoman rule. Dissatisfied with other Great Powers’ desire to treat the conflict as an internal matter and maintain the status quo, Russia and the British formed a bilateral agreement to use force if necessary to achieve a mediated resolution, allowing Greek autonomy within the Ottoman Empire. This move wasn’t consulted with the other great powers, and although France later joined, Austria and Prussia opposed the Protocol due to its threat to the conservative, anti-nationalist stability they aimed to establish in Europe. The Ottomans initially rejected the Protocol until their defeat at the Battle of Navarino, which forced them to come to the negotiating table.
London Conference: December 20, 1830-January 20, 1831
The London Conference of 1830 dealt with the issues raised by the Belgian Revolution of 1830. In that year, the southern territories of the recently created United Kingdom of the Netherlands (formed only in 1815 in the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars) broke away to establish the independent nation of Belgium. The reasons for this Belgian development are obvious, considering the southern territories previously constituted their own separate province — the Spanish Netherlands, followed by the Austrian Netherlands; and between 1789 and 1790, the Brabant Revolution in Belgium had sought greater autonomy, and possibly even independence, from the Austrian Empire. After the 1830 Belgian Revolution, conflict between the Dutch and Belgians ensued. Austria, Prussia, and Russia saw Belgium’s separation as a threat to stability, inviting further revolutions and revolts, and sought to return to the status quo ante. On the other hand, France, now led by the more liberal July Monarchy as a result of its own 1830 revolution, supported Belgium’s independence. The British were very wary of French plans to annex parts of Belgium, but when no powers were willing to send troops to support the Dutch. And with the ascension of a more liberal Whig government, Britain eventually supported the creation of an independent, neutral Belgium as a buffer state, to which the other Great Powers ultimately agreed.
Convention of London: July 15, 1840
The full title was the Convention for the Pacification of the Levant, and it convened to hammer out a treaty signed by the United Kingdom, Austria, Prussia, Russia, and the Ottoman Empire on July 15, 1840. The convention aimed to support the Ottoman Empire, which was facing challenges from the rebellious Wali of Egypt, Muhammad Ali. Muhammad Ali initially rejected the terms, leading to the Oriental Crisis of 1840. Eventually, he accepted the convention on November 27, 1840. The treaty addressed recent agreements concerning the Ottoman Empire and its conflict with Muhammad Ali’s Egypt. It was driven by the Great Powers’ concern about the potential destabilizing impact of an Ottoman collapse on Europe — a concern at the very heart of the Eastern question. The Ottomans agreed to close the Dardanelles to non-Ottoman warships in peacetime, and Muhammad Ali had to withdraw his forces from various regions within the Ottoman Empire. In return, he and his heirs were offered permanent control over Egypt and Acre within the Ottoman Empire, provided those territories remained part of it. Failure to accept the terms within specified timeframes would result in the loss of these offers. Muhammad Ali was also required to return the Ottoman fleet that had defected to Egypt.
Oriental Crisis of 1840: July 15-November 27, 1840
In the 1830s, the Ottoman Empire faced internal turmoil led by Muhammad Ali Pasha, the viceroy of Egypt and nominally a loyal governor of the Ottoman imperial regime. Instead, he aimed to create his own empire by breaking free from Ottoman control. His demands for parts of the Levant and invasion of Syria posed a serious threat to the weakened Ottoman government, sparking the Oriental Crisis of 1840. Austria, Britain, Prussia, and Russia supported the Ottomans, seeking stability, while France, aiming to expand its influence, backed Muhammad Ali. However, the Convention of London in 1840, excluding France, led to a joint British-Austrian attack on Egyptian forces, forcing Muhammad Ali to accept Ottoman terms. France initially threatened war but ultimately aligned with the other powers, demonstrating that important political decisions were made by the great powers. This crisis highlighted the destabilizing impact of the Ottoman Empire’s decline on the balance of power and prompted significant armament and fortification efforts in several countries, including France and the German Confederation.
Rhine Crisis: August 5-October 29, 1840
The Rhine crisis of 1840 was a diplomatic standoff between France and the German Confederation, sparked by French minister Adolphe Thiers’ demand to revert the Rhine River to France’s eastern border, resulting in the loss of about 12,355 square miles of German territory. The Left Bank of the Rhine, previously under French control from 1795 to 1815, had been returned to German, mainly Prussian, jurisdiction following the Congress of Vienna. Following a diplomatic setback in the Oriental Crisis of 1840, France shifted its attention to the Rhine, with Thiers leading the charge to reestablish the river as a natural border between France and Germany. This claim fueled nationalist sentiments on both sides and led to popular nationalist songs like “Die Wacht am Rhein“, “Der Deutsche Rhein“, and the “Lied der Deutschen” in Germany. Eventually, the crisis concluded peacefully when Thiers resigned as prime minister, and a more conciliatory French government took office.
London Straits Convention: July 13, 1841
The London Straits Convention of July 13, 1841, was a pact among the major European powers of the time, including Russia, the United Kingdom, France, Austria, and Prussia, aimed at reestablishing the Ottoman Empire’s control over the Turkish Straits — the Bosporus and Dardanelles. This agreement effectively closed the straits to all foreign warships except those of the Ottoman Sultan’s allies during wartime, favoring British naval supremacy and limiting Russian access to the Mediterranean. The convention was part of a series of treaties regarding access to these strategic waterways and evolved in response to the Treaty of Hünkâr İskelesi in 1833, which granted exclusive straits usage to the Ottomans and Russians during times of general war. This convention was originally intended to bolster the Ottoman Empire, and its roots go back to the Treaty of the Dardanelles in 1809. The convention was heavily influenced by the rise of Muhammad Ali of Egypt and his destabilizing impact on the Ottoman Empire via the First and Second Egyptian-Ottoman Wars, in 1831-1833 and 1839-1841, respectively. Thus, the London Straits Convention was deeply concerned with the Eastern question.
3 September 1843 Revolution
Actually taking place on September 15, 1843 (using the Gregorian calendar), the 3 September 1843 Revolution was a Greek uprising in Athens led by the Hellenic Army, supported by a significant portion of the population, against King Otto’s autocratic rule. The rebels, mainly veterans of the Greek War of Independence, demanded a constitution and the removal of Bavarian officials who held sway in the government. The revolution succeeded, marking the beginning of a constitutional monarchy with universal suffrage in Greece, as outlined in the 1844 Constitution. Captain Schinas, in charge of the Athens artillery, was ordered to suppress the uprising but chose to join it instead. King Otto eventually conceded to the demands and granted the constitution. What made this event particularly significant to the history of the Concert of Europe is that the coup was peaceful and received acceptance from France and the United Kingdom, while Russia condemned it — more signs the Concert system was unraveling. A constitutional commission was established, and the constitution was proclaimed in March 1844.
Revolutions of 1848
The year 1848 marks the end of our timeline of the Concert of Europe. On January 12, 1848, the first spark that ignited the powder keg(s) in Europe occurred in Palermo, where urban risings spread and morphed into the full-fledged Sicilian revolution of 1848. Come February, the French would once again overthrow their monarch, replacing the July Monarchy with the Second Republic. For the rest of the year and, for many European countries, well into 1849, revolution swept the land. The Great Powers were far too busy coming to grips with their domestic troubles to hold congresses or iron out international, diplomatic affairs.
The Bottom Line on the Timeline of the Concert of Europe
While the dating of the Concert of Europe depends on the taste of the historian, our timeline spans from the downfall of Napoleon and the Bourbon Restoration of 1814-1815, all the way to the outbreak of the Revolutions of 1848. The Concert of Europe was in its prime in the years from 1815 until after the Congress of Verona in 1822. As more time passed between the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars and the present, the more the Great Powers began to diverge in their interests.
There are definitely good things to say and bad things to say about the Concert of Europe. On the positive side, the Congress System it followed really did contain conflicts from exploding into wider wars. The simple fact that the Great Powers of Europe were in fairly consistent dialogue during these years was an added benefit. The Concert of Europe was no United Nations or even League of Nations, but nothing like it had previously emerged in European history. Notions of maintaining the “balance of power” were age old. But there hadn’t been anything as deliberate as the Concert of Europe, explicitly setting out to maintain equilibrium. On the negative side, for many, the Concert of Europe was nothing more than a coalition of powerful nations willing to use brute force to crush any inkling of liberalism or change to the established, conservative status quo.